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Running head: HOW PROFESSORS TONE OF VOICE AFFECTS STUDENT LEARNING
How Professors Tone of Voice Affects Student Learning
Diana Gonzalez
Mykaiesha McCarthy
Gabriela Cohen
Emalyn Gazitua
Cristian Nieves
Jack Levy
Shanielle Waugh
Florida International University
Table of Contents
1
HOW PROFESSOR TONE AFFECTS STUDENT LEARNING
2
Page
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………. 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………………4
3 METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………………………………
4 RESULTS …………………………………………………………………………………….
5 DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………………….
6 LIMITATIONS ………………………………………………………………………………..
7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ……………………………………..
LIST OF REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………
HOW PROFESSOR TONE AFFECTS STUDENT LEARNING
3
Abstract
Background: Studies have consistently shown how professor tone of voice affects student
learning. There is a strong correlation in how the properties of the tone of voice like the level of
energy, the average pitch and the rate of speech, help students to engage in the class lesson. The
articles presented will assess how vocal behavior and nonverbal communication, are key
elements to encode and decode messages in the classroom. Methods: The assessment is
conducted using data collected from How does a professor’s tone of voice affect student
learning? survey. This survey address six questions, where fifty participants crossing a college
path, will be able to categorize and rate how does the professor’s tone of voice help them to have
a better engagement in the class. Results: The data exhibit that there is a strong relationship
between how students perceive professor’s tone of voice and how this interaction helps in the
engagement of the class. As an example, 71.43% of students perceive the professor’s tone of
voice expressive and 4.08% of students perceive a slow pace or soft tone during the class lecture.
Conclusions: These findings show that there is a positive relationship between professor and
students. As long as the students perceive an enthusiastic tone of voice, they will have a better
understanding of the class lecture.
HOW PROFESSOR TONE AFFECTS STUDENT LEARNING
4
Introduction
America has the distinction of holding the lowest college completion rate in the
developed world (Weissmann, 2014). Only 55% of entering college freshman for the 2008
academic year completed their degree within six years (Weissmann, 2014). While this problem
may seem restricted to the education field, in reality it affects the entire nation. When college
students drop-out, taxpayers pay. Students who prematurely withdrew from college are more
likely to default on student loans. Currently, student debt has reached nearly $1.5 trillion
(Papantonio, 2017). Knowing this, it is crucial that the underlying factors contributing to
attrition rates are explored. Based upon the results of several peer reviewed journals it is apparent
that the professor and student relationship can mitigate the likelihood of dropping out. More
specifically, the type of tone a professor uses directly affects a student’s perception of them and
the learning material, which, in turn, has the potential to either discourage or encourage college
drop-out. Prior research on this topic has addressed the significance of vocal mimicry on the
professor and student relationship. Thus, it was hypothesized that students would perceive a
professor’s tone as positive if it was similar to their own tone of voice, and thus would learn
more from them. Before revealing the findings of the study, prior research on the topic will
addressed.
Literature Review
HOW PROFESSOR TONE AFFECTS STUDENT LEARNING
Methodology
Results
Discussion
Limitations
Recommendations for future research
List of references
5
College Teaching
ISSN: 8756-7555 (Print) 1930-8299 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vcol20
Emotional Contagion in the Classroom: The Impact
of Teacher Satisfaction and Confirmation on
Perceptions of Student Nonverbal Classroom
Behavior
Marian L. Houser & Caroline Waldbuesser
To cite this article: Marian L. Houser & Caroline Waldbuesser (2017) Emotional
Contagion in the Classroom: The Impact of Teacher Satisfaction and Confirmation on
Perceptions of Student Nonverbal Classroom Behavior, College Teaching, 65:1, 1-8, DOI:
10.1080/87567555.2016.1189390
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2016.1189390
Published online: 29 Jun 2016.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 302
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http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vcol20
Download by: [Florida International University]
Date: 26 September 2017, At: 06:49
COLLEGE TEACHING
2017, VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1–8
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2016.1189390
Emotional Contagion in the Classroom: The Impact of Teacher Satisfaction and
Confirmation on Perceptions of Student Nonverbal Classroom Behavior
Marian L. Housera and Caroline Waldbuesserb
Downloaded by [Florida International University] at 06:49 26 September 2017
a
Texas State University; bOhio University
ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS
Teachers appreciate nonverbally responsive students, but what is missing is an understanding of the
direct influence of teachers’ self-perceptions on their perceptions of how engaged their students are
in class. Using the emotional contagion theory as a lens, this study examines the premise that
satisfied instructors expect students to mirror their own behaviors in the classroom through being
nonverbally responsive. Results of the regression model confirm that teachers’ perceptions of their
own confirmation behaviors most strongly predict their perceptions of how nonverbally responsive
students are in class. Thus, instructors who are more expressive will likely induce students to be
more expressive, leading them to determine their students are being more nonverbally responsive.
Further, expressive instructors will be more attuned to student interaction because they may
subconsciously expect students to mirror their actions through nonverbal behaviors—they will look
for it. Additionally, satisfied instructors view their students as satisfied and look for these feelings to
be exposed via nonverbal response behaviors. Implications for teacher training and mentoring
programs are discussed.
Emotional contagion;
instructor satisfaction;
satisfaction with students;
student nonverbal
responsiveness; teacher
confirmation
Instructors frequently favor one class over another with
little explanation for the imbalance. Dornyei and
Murphy (2003) sought to understand why “some classes
feel ‘good’ and some ‘bad’ at different times or all the
time” (p. 4.) and argued that classroom dynamics, student-teacher interactions, and a “cohesive-performance
effect” (Dornyei 1997) motivated students to perform,
and teachers and students alike to gain stronger overall
satisfaction. Ultimately, the level of classroom involvement can shape not only student perceptions of their
instructors, but also instructors’ perceptions of students
and their own teaching (Goodboy and Myers 2008; Malachowski and Martin 2011).
Specifically, previous research has explored how
teacher classroom confirmation behaviors are related to
increased student classroom involvement (Campbell,
Eichhorn, Basch, and Wolf 2009; Goldman and Goodboy
2014; Goodboy and Myers 2008). In addition, teacher
perceptions of their personal confirmation behaviors
correlated with students’ nonverbal responsiveness
(NVR) behaviors (Malachowski and Martin 2011). Even
more important, perhaps, is the finding that instructors’
perceptions of their students’ NVR related to their personal satisfaction with the class and their levels of
CONTACT Marian L. Houser
78666, USA.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
mh53@txstate.edu
self-efficacy (Mottet 2000; Mottet and Beebe 2006;
Mottet, Beebe, Raffeld, and Medlock 2004a).
Teachers appreciate nonverbally responsive students,
but what is missing is an understanding of the direct
influence of teachers’ self-perceptions on their perceptions of how engaged their students are in class. In other
words, teachers are working very hard in their classes to
connect with students (e.g., confirm them) and are satisfied with their teaching, but does this, in turn, predict
their perceptions of student nonverbal behavior? Does
how I perceive my own teaching impact how I perceive
my students? Using the emotional contagion theory as
an interpretive lens, this study examines the premise that
satisfied instructors expect students to mirror their own
behaviors in the classroom through being nonverbally
responsive. Understanding this relationship is important,
as teaching does not occur in a vacuum, and instructors’
classroom experiences influence how they see their
students.
This study will first examine previous scholarship on
emotional contagion, teacher confirmation, and student
nonverbal responsiveness. The relationships between the
variables will then be examined, followed by an analysis of
the predictive influence of teachers’ personal perceptions
Department of Communication Studies, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX
2
M. L. HOUSER AND C. WALDBUESSER
in the classroom. Finally, implications for future research
and the study’s limitations will be discussed.
Literature review
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Emotional contagion
Social science scholars have studied how emotions can
affect other people (Darwin 1872; Hatfield, Cacioppo,
and Rapson 1994; Howard and Gengler 2001). Darwin
(1872) first examined what caused humans to display
certain emotions in various contexts. Hatfield and colleagues (1994) then sought to understand how people
influenced each other’s emotions and, as a result,
advanced the emotional contagion theory. They argued
emotions were either negative or positive responses to
stimuli; sometimes these responses were contagious. At
the individual level, scholars have discovered people
often “catch” or mimic the emotions of others (Hsee,
Hatfield, and Carlson 1990). Specifically, they tend to
copy the emotions of trusted or familiar individuals
more readily (Howard and Gengler 2001).
Emotional contagion theory also explains people are
either transmitters or catchers (Hatfield et al. 1994; Verbeke 1997). Transmitters in the service industry, for
example, positively influence customer emotions, leading
to increased sales (Verbeke 1997). In contrast, catchers
appear to have both positive and negative implications
(Miller, Stiff, and Ellis 1988; Verbeke 1997). In the classroom, this could translate to positive teachers “catching”
from responsive students. Research suggests contagion
also occurs when the receiver reacts negatively to the initiator’s emotional displays (Hatfield et al. 1994). Thus, if
one person displays angry emotions, it influences the
other person to back away or leave. Hatfield et al. (1994)
referred to this contagion reaction as “complementary”
or “countercontagion” (p. 5). Overall, emotional contagion is affected by a variety of stimuli and contexts, forcing it to be a complex phenomenon. This theory
provides a useful lens to examine the relationship
between instructor perceptions of student nonverbal
responsiveness and self-perceptions of their confirmation
behaviors, since student nonverbal responsiveness is
closely linked with emotional displays in the classroom
(Jenkins and Deno 1969; Klein 1971; Malachowski and
Martin 2011).
Over the years, emotional contagion has been examined in the instructional context (Bakker 2005; Wang
and Schrodt 2010). Bakker (2005), for example, concluded that if a teacher had positive experiences at work,
their students would also have more positive experiences
in class. In contrast, emotional contagion was reported
to have no influence on how students perceived
instructor immediacy or their affect for instructors
(Wang and Schrodt 2010): Specifically, this study examined whether emotional contagion would influence
students’ sense of liking for the instructor when students
perceived them as more nonverbally immediate. Emotional contagion, however, was found to have no influence on the relationship between students’ perceptions
of instructor immediacy and student affect toward the
instructor (Wang and Schrodt, 2010).
This curious disparity leads us to question the impact
of the emotional contagion of instructors’ perceptions of
their students based upon their own confirmation behaviors of them.
Teacher confirmation
Teachers frequently display their positive emotions
through their confirmation behaviors toward students
(Ellis 2000; Goodboy and Myers 2008; Malachowksi and
Martin 2011). Ellis (2000) defined teacher confirmation
as “the transactional process by which teachers communicate to students that they are endorsed, recognized,
and acknowledged as valuable, significant individuals”
(p. 266). These behaviors have been linked with classroom outcomes from student learning and motivation to
instructor perceptions of student behaviors. (Ellis 2000;
Goodboy and Myers 2008; Schrodt and Finn 2011; Malachowski and Martin 2011). When students perceived
that their instructors displayed more confirming behaviors, it has been positively related to their affective learning, cognitive learning, satisfaction with the class, and
state motivation (Ellis 2000; Goodboy and Myers 2008).
Further, research has shown that students felt more supported and understood in classes where the teacher was
more invested in them (Goldman and Goodboy 2014;
Schrodt and Finn 2011). Overall, this instructor behavior
has helped students to have more positive experiences in
the classroom (Goldman and Goodboy 2014; Goodboy
and Myers 2008).
In addition, teacher confirmation has been found to
directly impact student classroom behaviors (Campbell
et al. 2009; Goldman and Goodboy 2014; Goodboy and
Myers 2008). For example, researchers concluded that if
students perceived that instructors displayed moderate
levels of confirmation, they communicated more relational, participatory, and functional messages (Goodboy
and Myers 2008). In addition to this, teacher confirmation also reduced negative student behaviors, such as
excuse-making and challenging instructors.
Though most research has focused on student perceptions of teacher confirmation and their own classroom
communication, Malachowski and Martin (2011) investigated how instructor perceptions of their personal
COLLEGE TEACHING
confirmation behaviors with students related to their
perceptions of students’ communication during class;
they reported a positive relationship between their confirmation behaviors and perceptions of student NVR.
Plax, Kearney, and Down (1986) argued that teacher perceptions of their own behaviors “are more likely to affect
their own perceptions of how they feel towards students
and teaching” (p. 381). Therefore, it is important to
understand the instructors’ perceptions of themselves in
the classroom, including their own confirmation of
students.
Downloaded by [Florida International University] at 06:49 26 September 2017
Student nonverbal responsiveness
The emotional contagion theory can be used to explain
student responses to teacher confirmation behaviors. If
students find instructors are more positive and complimentary, it could lead them to mimic the behaviors
through their nonverbal response reactions. Mottet
(2000) defined student nonverbal responsiveness (NVR)
as student use of nonverbal cues in the classroom that
indicates involvement and listening. Student nonverbal
responsiveness is part of the overall nonverbal immediacy construct, but it differs as it focuses only on behavioral responses rather than including the initial
behaviors in interaction (Mottet, 2000). Overall, NVR is
important to examine within the classroom due to the
influence on the communication of the instructor as well
as the engagement of students in the classroom (Malachowski and Martin 2011; Mottet 2000; Mottet and
Beebe 2006; Mottet et al. 2004a; Mottet, Beebe, Raffeld,
and Paulsel 2004b; Mottet, Beebe, Raffeld, and Paulsel
2005).
Several studies have concluded that teacher interactions, self-perceptions, and satisfaction in the classroom
are correlated with student NVR (Jenkins and Deno
1969; Klein 1971; Malachowski and Martin 2011; Mottet
2000; Mottet and Beebe 2006; Mottet, et al. 2004a; Mottet, et al. 2004b; Mottet et al. 2005). Particularly, student
nonverbal feedback has been shown to predict how a
teacher perceives his or her own teaching within the
classroom (Jenkins and Deno 1969; Mottet 2000). When
researchers examined student positive feedback in the
classroom, they found that if students engaged in more
positive nonverbal response behaviors, instructors felt
that their teaching was effective in the classroom, and
the students achieved increased levels of cognitive learning (Jenkins and Deno 1969).
Student NVR has also been linked with how a teacher
viewed the students in the classroom (Jenkins and Deno
1969; Mottet, Beebe, Raffeld, and Paulsel 2004b). Past
scholars concluded that when students utilized positive
feedback behaviors, the teachers felt that the students
3
wanted to contribute more in the classroom (Jenkins and
Deno 1969). Later, researchers extended this concept to
find that if students used more nonverbal response
behaviors it was related to increased levels of instructor
affect toward students (Mottet and Beebe 2006; Mottet
et al. 2004b).
Student-teacher nonverbal interactions have also been
related to teacher classroom behavior Klein 1971; Malachowski and Martin 2011). Earlier research on student
feedback in the classroom reported that if students used
more positive/negative NVR, teachers interacted more
positively/negatively with them (Klein 1971). Additionally, if students were more nonverbally responsive, it correlated with an increased instructor willingness to
comply with their demands in the classroom (Mottet
et al. 2004b). Student NVR has not only accounted for
how teachers behaved within the classroom, but a relationship has also been established with student grades.
Mottet and Beebe (2006) found that if a student was
more nonverbally responsive in class and more involved
in classroom interactions (Frymier 2005), it was related
to higher grades on oral assignments.
Furthermore, student NVR has been shown to influence teacher outcomes (Jenkins and Deno 1969; Mottet
2000; Mottet et al. 2004a). Specifically, previous researchers concluded that if students used increased levels of
NVR, it increased instructor self-efficacy within the
classroom (Mottet et al. 2004a). Additionally, student
NVR can increase instructor job satisfaction (Jenkins
and Deno 1969; Mottet et al. 2004a) such that if students
utilized more positive feedback with instructors in the
classroom, they enjoyed teaching more (Jenkins and
Deno 1969). Mottet (2000) concluded that when students in televised classes provided more nonverbal feedback, it not only made the class more enjoyable for the
instructor but also increased the likelihood that instructors would teach the same class again in the future.
Instructor satisfaction
Understanding the relationships between teacher confirmation, student nonverbal responsiveness, and tea …
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