Solved by verified expert:Choose two of the theories
presented in Chapter 3 I have provided in the attachement. Present the major
concepts of each of the two theories and describe how each could be applied to
the social problem in Mental Health. What are the strengths and limitations of
each theory? Also describe how the two theories could be used together by human
service professionals to manage the chosen social problem, which is Mental
health. All I need is 200 words please original work no plagiarism and
try to put into 200 words. Thanks
chapter_3_unit_3_discussion_1.docx
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Chapter 3 Unit 3 discussion 1
I have always thought of myself as a kindhearted person. I remember that, even as a
young child, I felt a little different from everyone else—a bit more sensitive, a bit more
aware of other people’s feelings. For instance, if I were playing ball at the park, I would
always worry about the feelings of the kid who was picked last. Similarly, I was worried
about the feelings of the kids in class who were overweight, or withdrawn, or “nerdy.”
Later, when I was in college, I still was the “nice guy” trying to do what was just and right
and attempting to be the caretaker in the crowd. When shifting my major to psychology, I
believed that my caring attitude was in and of itself the sufficient tool I would need to be
an effective helper. Therefore, I held an attitude that there was little I could learn that
would actually benefit me as a helper. As I went on to graduate school, I continued to think
I already had the natural skills that alone would make me an effective helper. Basically, I
was going to school to get the degree. I believed this so strongly that no one dared tell me
how to interact with a client—I knew it all. Just let me at those clients; I could help them. I
didn’t need any specific training. After all, wasn’t I a caring person? Weren’t caring and
motivation enough?
Well, I do think that having a caring attitude is one basic ingredient in being an effective
helper. However, over the years I have found that often (if not usually) caring alone is not
sufficient to be effective at what you do. Although our clients may appreciate our caring, it
is often not enough to assist them in the change process. Thus, I now believe that having a
solid theoretical background and clearly defined techniques is essential to being an
effective counselor.
In this chapter we will explore the importance of counseling theory in the helping
relationship. We will first examine the differences, if any, between counseling and
psychotherapy. Next, we will examine how a theory is developed and review the theoretical
underpinnings of four major conceptual orientations: psychodynamic, behavioral,
humanistic, and cognitive. We will then review some cross-theoretical approaches to
counseling, including theoretical integration or eclecticism, brief and solution-focused
treatment, and gender-aware approaches. The chapter will conclude by reviewing important
ethical and professional issues related to supervision, confidentiality, dual relationships,
and the importance of continuing to refine one’s approach to doing counseling.
COUNSELING OR PSYCHOTHERAPY?
Before we start examining the theoretical underpinnings to doing counseling or psychotherapy,
let’s explore the differences, if any, that exist between counseling and psychotherapy. When I
ask my students to make associations with the word counseling, I usually get responses that
include “short-term,” “supportive,” “conscious,” “problem solving,” and “present focus.”
However, when I ask for associations to the word psychotherapy, I generally get responses that
include “long-term, deep personality change,” “secrets unveiled,” “unconscious,” and “focus on
past.” In actuality, texts tend to not distinguish counseling from psychotherapy (e.g., see Corey,
2009; Neukrug, 2011). However, how practitioners implement a theory probably has more to do
with whether one practices “counseling” or “psychotherapy.” For instance, practitioners who see
themselves as doing counseling probably have expectations for their clients that fit the previous
descriptions of counseling, while those who practice psychotherapy likely have expectations for
clients that fit that definition. A rule of thumb may be that as you receive more education and
training, you probably will move from more of a counseling role to one of a psychotherapeutic
role—your expectations have changed (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: The Differences Between Counseling and
Psychotherapy
Although I would argue that human service professionals do not have the training to do in-depth
psychotherapeutic work, there is no question that they counsel clients. Thus, it is crucial that
human service professionals understand the basic theory behind doing counseling.
WHY HAVE A THEORY?
In theory-driven science, an unending cycle of discovery and testing creates and evolves theories
of ever-increasing scope that can guide counseling practice. (Strong, 1991, p. 204) Theory offers
us a comprehensive system of doing counseling and assists us in understanding our client, in
determining what techniques to apply, and in predicting change. Theories are heuristic—they
are researchable and testable. Theory comes from practice, is a way of organizing our ideas, and
leads to suggested plans of action (Neukrug & Schwitzer, 2006). Without a theory we would be
just “doing our own thing,” and there would be no rhyme or reason to client interventions
(Brammer & MacDonald, 2003). Or, as Hansen, Rossberg, and Cramer (1994) note, “[to]
function without theory is to operate without placing events in some order and thus to function
meaninglessly” (p. 9). Today, all the current, well-known counseling theories have a long
history, have gone through revisions, and have been supported to some degree by research. A
counseling theory generally arises from a theorist’s view of human nature.
VIEWS OF HUMAN NATURE
Although there are literally hundreds of theories of counseling and psychotherapy (Gabbard,
1995; O’Leary, 2006; List of psychotherapies, 2011), most of them can be placed into four major
conceptual orientations: psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, existential–humanistic, and
postmodern. A theory is placed in one of these orientations because it shares key concepts related
to its view of human nature. One’s view of human nature describes how a person comes to
understand the reasons people are motivated to do the things they do. A few of the ingredients
that go into the development of one’s view of human nature include beliefs about the following:
• The impact of early child-rearing on personality development
• The impact of instincts on personality development (e.g., sex drive, aggressive instincts)
• Whether the individual is born good, bad, or neutral
• Religious beliefs about the nature of the person (e.g., whether we are born with original
sin; belief in a hereafter)
• • The impact of genetics on personality development
• • The impact of social forces on personality development (e.g., poverty, culture, racism)
• • Beliefs about the ability of one to change
• • Beliefs about one’s ability to choose one’s circumstances
• • Beliefs about whether we are determined by life circumstances (deterministic vs.
antideterministic viewpoints)
• • Belief in an unconscious
Think about one’s view of human nature relative to how you come to understand a person like
Charles Manson, a sociopath who, during the 1960s, led a cult of young adults who viciously
murdered five people. If you believe people are inherently evil, you would want Manson to learn
how to place restraints on his evil nature. You might view his past actions as a product of his evil
nature taking over. You might also believe that we all have such an evil side. On the other hand,
the individual who believes we are born with innate goodness would see Manson as a person
who had lost touch with his innate loving side—perhaps through a series of horribly abusive
experiences in childhood. You would therefore want him to get in touch with his caring and
loving side, and you would offer him an environment that would allow him to do this. On which
side of this philosophical fence are you? (See Box 3.1.)
•
•
•
•
BOX 3.1: Understanding Your View of Human Nature
For each of the following four statements, circle all items that best describe your beliefs. Then
using your responses as a guide, develop a paragraph describing your view of human nature. Feel
free to add other items.
•
1. At birth, I believe people are born:
a. good
b. bad
c. neutral
d. with original sin
e. restricted by their genetics
f. with a growth force which allows them to change throughout life
g. capable of being anything they want to be
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
h. with sexual drives that consciously and unconsciously affect their lives
i. with aggressive drives that consciously and unconsciously affect their lives
j. with social drives that consciously and unconsciously affect their lives
k. other attributes? _____________
• 2. Personality development is most influenced by:
o a. genetics
o b. learning
o c. early child-rearing patterns
o d. drives
o e. values that we are taught
o f. environment
o g. relationships with others
o h. biology
o i. instincts
o j. modeling the behavior of others
o k. cultural influences
o l. developmental issues (e.g., puberty)
o m. conscious decisions
o n. the unconscious
o o. language
o p. feelings of inferiority
o q. primordial images
o r. other _____________
• 3. As people grow older, I believe they are:
o a. capable of major changes in their personality
o b. capable of moderate changes in their personality
o c. capable of minor changes in their personality
o d. incapable of change in their personality
o e. determined by their early childhood experiences
o f. determined by their genetics
o g. determined by how they were conditioned and reinforced
o h. determined by unconscious motivations
o i. able to transcend or go beyond early childhood experiences
• 4. Change is likely to be most facilitated by a focus on:
o a. the conscious mind
o b. the unconscious mind
o c. thoughts
o d. behaviors
o e. feelings
o f. early experiences
o g. the past
o h. the present
o i. the future
o j. the use of medications
o k. unfinished business
o l. repressed memories
o m. biology
o n. language
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o. memories
p. one’s “real” self
q. other __________
FOUR CONCEPTUAL ORIENTATIONS AND SELECT
THEORIES THAT ACCOMPANY THEM1,2
As already noted, there are literally hundreds of counseling theories. For the most part, these
theories can be placed in one of four schools or conceptual
approaches: psychodynamic, cognitive–behavioral, existential–humanistic, and postmodern.
The following offers an overview of the development and view of human nature of each of the
four schools of thought. Each view of human nature is followed by very brief descriptions of a
few of the theories from that school. And this is followed by a quick explanation of how that
approach may be applied by human service professionals:
Development and View of Human Nature of Conceptual Orientation
↓
Short Descriptions of Select Theories Within Each Orientation
↓
Human Service Applications
Psychodynamic Approaches
It is the latter part of the nineteenth century. A person walks into a physician’s office
complaining of melancholia and paralysis of the left arm. No apparent physical problems are
found. What does the physician do? During that time, symptoms such as these were thought to be
organic in nature; that is, they were considered physical in origin. If the physical problem could
not be immediately discovered, it was because science had not yet found the physical origins of
the problems. Then, in the late 1800s, Sigmund Freud developed a comprehensive theory that
he applied when doing therapy with individuals (Appignanesi & Zarate; 2004; Freud,
1940/2003). Using hypnosis, he discovered some amazing things. For instance, some patients
who had lost the use of a limb or were blind were found not to have symptoms while under
hypnosis. Freud realized that their illness was not physical but instead had psychological origins
(conversion disorder). Freud spent years trying to understand the complex intricacies of the
mind. Although he later abandoned the use of hypnosis for other techniques, he felt strongly that
there were unconscious factors beyond our everyday awareness that mediated our behavior. In
other words, he thought that the reasons we do things are often beyond our understanding and are
a function of motivations from the unconscious. Freud spent most of his life developing his
psychoanalytic theory to explain the causes of human behavior. As the years have gone by, some
of Freud’s theory has been debunked, other parts have been changed, and still other parts have
continued to be seen as important in understanding a person. In addition, a number of theorists
have borrowed from Freud’s original ideas and moved in innovative directions. Freudians and
neo-Freudians are often subsumed under the heading “psychodynamic theorists.”
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Today, psychodynamic approaches vary considerably but contain some common elements. For
instance, they all suggest that an unconscious and a conscious affect the functioning of the
person in some deeply personal and dynamic ways. They all look at early child-rearing practices
as being important in the development of personality. They all believe that examining the past
and the dynamic interaction of the past with conscious and unconscious factors is important in
the therapeutic process. Although these approaches have tended to be long term, in recent years
some have been adapted and used in relatively brief treatment modality formats. Some of the
early psychodynamic approaches are said to be deterministic, because personality is seen as
“determined” early in life. However, some of the later approaches depart from this. The
following offers a very quick overview of three of the more popular psychodynamic
approaches: psychoanalysis, analytical therapy (Jungian therapy), and individual
psychology (Adlerian therapy). In addition, I will briefly describe some recent developments in
this area.
Psychoanalysis.
Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis suggests that instincts, such as hunger, thirst,
survival, aggression, and sex, are very strong motivators of behavior. The satisfaction of instincts
is mostly an unconscious process, and defense mechanisms (e.g., rationalizing, repression) are
developed to help manage and temper our instincts. Because we are in a constant and mostly
unconscious struggle to satisfy our instincts, psychoanalysts believe that happiness is elusive.
Early child-rearing practices, which are applied through the oral, anal, and phallic psychosexual
stages in the first six years of life, are responsible for how we manage our defenses and result in
normal or abnormal personality development. Effects of these practices can be observed as we
move into adolescence and adulthood (latency and genital psychosexual stages). The fact that
early childhood experiences are largely responsible for personality development and that our
behaviors are mostly dictated by the unconscious lends a sense of determinism to this approach.
Analytical Psychology.
Analytical psychology was developed by Carl Jung, who believed that psychological symptoms
represent a desire to regain lost parts of self, as well as parts that have never been revealed to
consciousness, so that the person can become whole. Analytic therapists believe we are born
with two pairs of mental functions of sensation–intuition and thinking–feeling, whose relative
strengths are affected by child-rearing. The strengths of each of the mental functions and whether
one has an innate tendency to be extraverted (outgoing) or introverted (observer, inward) are
called our psychological type. For instance, a person can be 70% sensing, 90% thinking, and
80% introverted. Jung hypothesized that whatever your predominate type is, the complementary
type resides in your personal unconscious and longs to be “heard” (in the example just given, the
complement is: intuition/feeling/extraverted). Your psychological type affects how you see the
world and is the filter through which you develop your consciousness. Analytical therapists also
believe that we all inherit the same, immeasurable number of primitive or primordial images
called archetypes, which are housed in the collective unconscious (mother archetype, father
archetype, the shadow, God archetype). They provide the psyche with its tendency to perceive
the world in certain ways that we identify as human and can sometimes interact with repressed
material in the personal unconscious and cause complexes.
Individual Psychology.
Developed by Alfred Adler, individual psychology suggests that early childhood experiences,
and the memories of those experiences, result in our character or personality. Believing that we
all experience feelings of inferiority as children, Adler suggested that if we learn how to respond
to such feelings in healthy ways, we will have a tendency to move toward wholeness,
completion, and perfection. However, if a person responds to feelings of inferiority through
negative private logic (e.g., “I am not worthwhile”), the result will yield compensatory behaviors
(e.g., bullying others to feel worthwhile) that are maladaptive and/or neurotic. Although early
experiences influence the development of personality, Adler suggested that education and
therapy can be effective in helping a person change. Adler’s approach in particular is seen as
more optimistic and less deterministic than other psychodynamic approaches, and some have
even placed him in the existential–humanistic school, which we will talk about shortly.
Recent Developments/Theories
Although agreeing with many of the basic premises of the psychodynamic view of human nature,
some believe that the classic psychodynamic approaches just described have been too lengthy,
too deterministic, too impersonal, and/or too focused on the unconscious. Thus, a number of
other “neo-Freudian approaches” have been developed that still emphasize early child-rearing,
the conscious, and the unconscious, but approach counseling in different ways. For
instance, Erik Erikson developed a theory that looked at how a person develops over the
lifetime and focused much more on psychosocial factors (e.g., family, friends, relationships,
work; see Chapter 5). Object relation theorists have played down the focus on instincts and
played up a focus on the need to be in relationships in building a self. And relational and
intersubjectivity perspectives focus much more on how the self is formed in relationship with
others and the importance of deep, personal encounters with clients.
The Human Service Professional’s Use of the Psychodynamic
Approach
Traditionally, the psychodynamic approach has been used mostly in the intensive
psychotherapeutic setting. However, some aspects of this approach can be adapted for the human
service professional. First, this approach offers us a developmental model by which we can
understand the individual. Understanding that clients may be responding to deep-seated
motivations that stem from early childhood and are mostly unconscious helps us have empathy
and patience when working with very difficult clients. Second, this approach helps us understand
deviant behavior. The notion that such behavior is the result of abusive or neglectful early
childhood, caretaking may help us understand that deviants, perpetrators, criminals, and abusers
are also victims. Only with this knowledge can we begin to have the deeper caring and
understanding needed to work with such difficult populations.
Finally, just as our clients might respond to individuals as if they were significant people from
their past (called transference), mental health professionals who have not resolved their past
issues may do the same. Called countertransference, this process can have negative effects on
relationships with clients because the helper’s unresolved issues may cause the helper to respond
in unhealthy ways toward his or her clients. It is important for human service professionals to
have worked through their own issues to avoid countertransference with their clients (se …
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